Types of grammar
- descriptive – describes the lg synchronically
- historical – describes a lg diachronically how lg changes through time
- contrastive – comparing grammars of two lgs with respect to differences btw them
- prescriptive – not describing lg in all its aspects but teaching lg users how to speak correctly.
Definitions of LG – nativist/inatist [CHOMSKY]
-inborn capacity of humans
-lg is innate
-children acquire lg
-input/output
[grammar rules] +[ lexicon] = infinite utterances
-grammar/rules and lexicon results in lg creativity
-lg is a dual system:
1st lvl of sounds = limit
2nd lvl of meanings = no limit
It is unlike any other code.
-lg is an arbitrary code
Lexicon is open infinite system
-new elements, describing the world around can be added freely
-adding new elements does nat involve the change of meaning of elements
Grammar is closed system
-deals with categorical facts- the whole categories of elements [N/V, number, tense, gender, aspect]
- a complete set – adding new elements would be linked to changing the meaning of the already present ones, e.g. the number in English [now=sing/plural, then=sing, dual, plural]
Grammaticalization of the lexicon – takes place when single, irreplaceable element become categorical, e.g. English modal verbs [now used as auxilaries]
Lexicalization of grammatical phenomenon – takes place when a category disappears, e.g. ox – oxen/ child – children
Can, caould >> gramaized lexicon
-en/ -s >> children/oxen
Deixis – they refere ‘I point to it’
Deictic pronouns – the ones that ‘point’ to sth and are understood only when the listener knows whet the speaker is referring to, e.g. here, there, this, that, tomorrow, now, then, she, our.
Phonological units – tone unit, foot (unit of rhythm, how stresses are distributed in time), syllable, phoneme
Tone unit – a unit of spoken lg related to a change of tone
Tonality – how an utterance is divided into tone units, the speaker’s choice unmarked [BASIC, usuall] vs marked tonality [different from this idea]
Unmarked tonality: 1 tone unit = 1 clause
Marked: 1 tone unit ≠ 1 clause
The FALL = telling, new information, asking WH Q
The FALL-RISE = referring, shared information, asking making sure, nice Q (Do you mind?)
Both 4 Y/N Questions
If F-R/F
There is a change of tone on the tonic syllable.
Every tonic syllable is stressed.
Only one per tone unit.
Always last of stressed syllables.
TONICITY – a way a tone unit is divided into pre-tonic and post-tonic part.
pre-tonic post-tonic
ß---------------------|--------------------à
// was there COffe room //
Unmarked – when the last syllable is tonic and in a lexical item
Marked – any other position of the tonic syllable and in a non-lexical item.
Functions of intonation
-emotional – to express attitudinal meaning (shock, scream, delight, anger)
-grammatical – to help to identify grammatical structure in speech.
-textual - to contrast and cohere larger units of speech (changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action)
- psychological – to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize, e.g. sequence of numbers
-indexical – to mark social or personal identity, e.g. lawyers, preachers, newsreaders, commentators are identified through their distinctive prosody.
Primary and secondary stress
-fixed and movable stress
‘king ‘kingly ‘kingliness un‘kingliness à fixed
‘stand under’stand misunder’stand à stress
‘telegraph tele’graphic te’legraphy à
‘photograph photo’graphic pho’tography à movable stress
‘transport transpor’table transpor’tation à
Word function vs phonology
+considerable stress and vowel pronunciation change (photograph)
+no stress change and vowel attention (nation/national)
+a few affixes assuming primary stress (‘ette/ launder’ette)
+prefixes having secondary stress if they are disyllabic (inter-)
+if the base begins with unstressed syllable (,unat’tractive) and if they are new uses of old items (pre-/re-)
Ylayda