Automotive - Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals.pdf - Książki po angielsku - adamkowalski7

McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering

INTERNAL

COMBUSTION

ENGINE

Jack P. Holman, Southern Methodist University

Consulting Editor

Anderson: Modern CompressibleFlow: With Historical Perspective

Dieter: Engineering Design: A Materials and Processing Approach

Eckert and Drake: Analysis of Heat and Mars Transfer

Heywood: Internal Combwtion Engine Fundamentals

Him: Turbulence,2/e

Hutton: Applied Mechanical Vibrations

Juvinall: Engineering Considerations of Stress, Strain, and Strength

Kane and Levinson: Dynamics: Theory and Applications

Kays and Crawford: Convective Heat and Mass Transfr

Mutin: Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines

Pklan: Dynamics of Machinery

Pbelan: Fundamentals of Mechanical Design, 3/e

Pierce: Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications

Raven: Automatic Control Engineering, 4/e

Rosenberg aod Karnopp: Introduction to Physics

Schlichting: Boundary-Layer Theory, 7/e

Shames: Mechanics of Fluiak, 2/e

Shigley: Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms, 2/e

Sbigley and Mitchell: Mechanical Engineering Design, 4/e

Sbigley and Uicker: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms

Stoecker and Jones: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning,2/e

Vanderplaats: Numerical Optimization Techniquesfor Engineering Design:

WithApplications

John B.LHeywood

Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

This book was set in Times Roman.

The editors were Anne Duffy and John M. Moms; the designer

was Joan E. O'Connor; the production supervisor was

Denise L. Puryear. New drawings were done by ANCO.

Project Supervision was done by Santype International Ltd.

R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company was printer and binder.

See acknowledgements on page xxi.

Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the

United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be

reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data

base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission

of the publisher.

ISBN 0-07-028637-X

- Heywood, John B.

Internal combustion engine fundamentals.

(McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering)

Bibliography: p.

Includes index.

I. Internal combustion engines. I. Title. 11. Series.

TJ755.H45 1988

Dr. John B. Heywood received the Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1965. Following an additional post-

doctoral year of research at MIT, he worked as a research officer at the Central

Electricity Generating Board's Research Laboratory in England on magneto-

hydrodynamic power generation. In 1968 he joined the faculty at MIT where he

is Professor of Mechanical Engineering. At MIT he is Director of the Sloan

Automotive Laboratory. He is currently Head of the Fluid and Thermal Science

Division of the Mechanical Engineering Department, and the Transportation

Energy Program Director in the MIT Energy Laboratory. He is faculty advisor

to the MIT Sports Car Club.

Professor Heywood's teaching and research interests lie in the areas of ther-

modynamics, combustion, energy, power, and propulsion. During the past two

decades, his research activities have centered on the operating characteristics and

fuels requirements of automotive and aircraft engines. A major emphasis has

been on computer models which predict the performance, efficiency, and emis-

sions of spark-ignition, diesel, and gas turbine engines; and in carrying out

experiments to develop and validate these models. He is also actively involved in

technology assessments and policy studies related to automotive engines, auto-

mobile fuel utilization, and the control of air pollution. He consults frequently in

&he automotive and petroleum industries, and for the U.S. Government.

His extensive research in the field of eogines has been supported by the U.S.

Army, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, NASA,

National Science Foundation, automobile and diesel engine manufacturers, and

petroleum companies. He has presented or published over a hundred papers on

621.43

87-15251

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-iP.PublicationData

~i ABOUT THE AUTHOR

his research in technical conferences and journals. He has co-authored two pre-

vious books: Open-Cycle MHD Power Generation published by Pergamon Press

in 1969 and The Automobile and the Regulation of Its Impact on the Environment

published by University of Oklahoma Press in 1975.

He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, an associ-

ate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, a fellow of

the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1982 was elected a Fellow

of the U.S. Society of Automotive Engineers for his technical contributions to

automotive engineering. He is a member of the editorial boards of the journals

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science and the International Journal of

Vehicle Design.

His research publications on internal combustion engines, power generation,

and gas turbine combustion have won numerous awards. He was awarded the

Ayreton Premium in 1969 by the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Pro-

fessor Heywood received a Ralph R. Teetor Award as an outstanding young

engineering educator from the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1971. He has

twice been the recipient of an SAE Arch T. Colwell Merit Award for an outstand-

ing technical publication (1973 and 1981). He received SAE's Horning Memorial

Award for the best paper on engines and fuels in 1984. In 1984 he received the

Sc.D. degree from Cambridge University for his published contributions to

engineering research. He was selected as the 1986 American Society of Mechani-

cal Engineers Freeman Scholar for a major review of "Fluid Motion within the

Cylinder of Internal Combustion Engines."

' THIS BooK IS DEDICATED TO MY FATHER,

Harold Heywood :

I havefollowed many of the paths he took.

vii

CONTENTS

Preface

xvii

Commonly Used Symbols, Subscripts, and

Abbreviations

xxiii

Chapter 1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

Engine Types and Their Operation

Introduction and Historical Perspective

Engine Classifiytions

Engine Operating Cycles

Engine Components

Spark-Ignition Engine Operation

Examples of Spark-Ignition Engines

Compression-IgnitionEngine Operation

Examples of Diesel Engines

Stratified-ChargeEngines

Chapter 2

2.1

2.2

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

Engine Design and Operating Parameters

Important Engine Characteristics

Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines

Brake Torque and Power

Indicated Work Per Cycle

Mechanical Efficiency

Road-Load Power

Mean Effective Pressure

Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency

Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios

X CONTENTS

2.10

2.11

2.12

2.13

2.14

2.15

Volumetric Efficiency

Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume

Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency

Specific Emissions and Emissions Index

Relationships between Performance Parameters

Engine Design and Performance Data

Chapter 5

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

Ideal Models of Engine Cycles

Introduction

Ideal Models of Engine Processes

Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes

Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with c, and

Constant

5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle

5.4.2 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles

5.4.3 Cycle Comparison

Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis

5.5.1 SI Engine Cycle Simulation

5.5.2 CI Engine Cycle Simulation

5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations

Overexpanded Engine Cycles

Availability Analysis of Engine Processes

5.7.1 Availability Relationships

5.7.2 Entropy Changes in Ideal Cycles

5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles

5.7.4 Effect of Equivalence Ratio

Comparison with Real Engine Cycles

Chapter 3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures

Characterization of Flames

Ideal Gas Model

Composition of Air and Fuels

Combustion Stoichiometry

The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion

3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances

3.5.2 Enthalpies of Formation

3.5.3 Heating Values

3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes

3.5.5 Combustion Efiency of an Internal Combustion Engine

The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion

3.6.1 Entropy

3.6.2 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion

Engine and Efficiency

Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures

3.7.1 Chemical Equilibrium

3.7.2 Chemical Reaction Rates

5.8

Chapter 6

6.1

6.2

Gas Exchange Processes

Inlet and Exhaust Processes in the Four-Stroke Cycle

Volumetric Efficiency

6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects

6.2.2 Combined Quasi-Static and Dynamic Ekects

6.2.3 Variation with Speed. and Valve Area, Lift, and 'I

Flow Through Valves

6.3.1 Poppet Valve Geometry and Timing .

6.3.2 Flow Rate and Discharge Coefficients

Residual Gas Fraction

Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation

Scavengingin Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations

6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models

6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes

Flow Through Ports

Supercharging and Turbocharging

6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting

6.8.2 Basic Relationships

6.8.3 Compressors

6.8.4 Turbines

6.8.5 Wave-Compression Devices

'iming

Chapter 4

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

Properties of Working Fluids

Introduction

Unburned Mixture Composition

Gas Property Relationships

A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model

Thermodynamic Charts

4.5.1 Unburned Mixture Charts

4.5.2 Burned Mixture Charts

4.5.3 Relation between Unburned and Burned

Mixture Charts

Tables of Properties and Composition

Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations

4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures

4.7.2 Burned Mixtures

Transport Properties

Exhaust Gas Composition

4.9.1 Species Concentration Data

4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust

Gas Constituents

4.9.3 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonuniformity

4.9.4 Combustion Inefficiency

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

6.8

Chapter 7

SI Engine Fuel Metering and Manifold

Phenomena

Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements

Carburetors

7.1

7.2

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