3509fm.PDF

Weber, Marvin J. Ph.D. "Frontmatter"

Hanbook of Lasers

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

Group

IIA

New Notation

Previous IUPAC Form

CAS Version

IIIB

IIIA

IVB

IVA

VIB

VIA

VIIB

VIIA

VIIIA

Shell

1.00794

-1

4.002602

-4

+ +2

+ +4

+ -1

- -3

-2

-1

Key to Chart

Atomic Number

Symbol

1995 Atomic Weight

118.710

-18-18-4

Oxidation States

6.941

2-1

9.012182

2-2

10.811

2-3

12.0107

2-4

14.00674

2-5

15.9994

2-6

18.9984032

2-7

20.1797

2-8

Electron

Configuration

K-L

-4

-3

-2

-1

IIIA

IIIB

IVA

IVB

VIA

VIB

VIIA

VIIB

VIIIA

VIII

IIB

22.989770

2-8-1

24.3050

2-8-2

26.981538

2-8-3

28.0855

2-8-4

30.973761

2-8-5

32.066

2-8-6

35.4527

2-8-7

39.948

2-8-8

K-L-M

-3

-2

-1

39.0983

-8-8-1

40.078

-8-8-2

44.955910

-8-9-2

47.867

-8-10-2

50.9415

-8-11-2

51.9961

-8-13-1

55.845

-8-13-2

58.933200

-8-15-2

58.6934

-8-16-2

63.546

-8-18-1

65.39

-8-18-2

69.723

-8-18-3

72.61

-8-18-4

74.92160

-8-18-5

78.96

-8-18-6

79.904

-8-18-7

83.80

-8-18-8

-L-M-N

-8-13-2

-3

-2

-1

54.938049

85.4678

-18-8-1

87.62

-18-8-2

88.90585

-18-9-2

91.224

-18-10-2

92.90638

-18-12-1

95.94

-18-13-1

(98)

-18-13-2

101.07

-18-15-1

102.90550

-18-16-1

106.42

-18-18-0

107.8682

-18-18-1

112.411

-18-18-2

114.818

-18-18-3

118.710

-18-18 -4

121.760

-18-18-5

127.60

-18-18-6

126.90447

-18-18-7

131.29

-18-18-8

-M-N-O

57*

132.90545

-18-8-1

137.327

-18-8-2

138.9055

-18-9-2

178.49

-32-10-2

180.9479

-32-11-2

183.84

-32-12-2

186.207

-32-13-2

190.23

-32-14-2

192.217

-32-15-2

195.078

-32-17-1

196.96655

-32-18-1

200.59

-32-18-2

204.3833

-32-18-3

207.2

-32-18-4

208.98038

-32-18-5

(209)

-32-18-6

(210)

-32-18-7

(222)

-32-18-8

-N-O-P

(223)

-18-8-1

(226)

-18-8-2

89**

(227)

-18-9-2

104

(261)

-32-10-2

105

(262)

-32-11-2

106

(266)

-32-12-2

107

(264)

-32-13-2

108

(269)

-32-14-2

109

(268)

-32-15-2

110

Uun

(271)

-32-16-2

111

Uuu

112

Uub

(272)

-O-P-Q

* Lanthanides

140.116

-19-9-2

140.90765

-21-8-2

144.24

-22-8-2

(145)

-23-8-2

150.36

-24-8-2

151.964

-25-8-2

157 .25

-25-9-2

158.92534

-27-8-2

162.50

-28-8-2

164.93032

-29-8-2

167.26

-30-8-2

168.93421

-31-8-2

173.04

-32-8-2

174.967

-32-9-2

-N-O-P

232.0381

-18-10-2

231.03588

-20-9-2

238.0289

-21-9-2

+ + + +6

(237)

-22-9-2

+ + + +6

(244)

-24-8-2

+ + + +6

(243)

-25-8-2

+ + + +6

(247)

-25-9-2

(247)

-27-8-2

(251)

-28-8-2

(252)

-29-8-2

100

(257)

-30-8-2

101

(258)

-31-8-2

102

(259)

-32-8-2

103

(262)

-32-9-2

** Actinides

-O-P-Q

The new IUPAC format numbers the groups from 1 to 18. The previous IUPAC numbering system and the system used by Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) are also shown. For radioactive

elements that do not occur in nature, the mass number of the most stable isotope is given in parentheses.

References

1. G. J. Leigh, Editor, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry , Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1990.

2. Chemical and Engineering News , 63(5), 27, 1985.

3. Atomic Weights of the Elements, 1995, Pure & Appl. Chem. , 68, 2339, 1996.

Handbook

Lasers

Marvin J. Weber Ph.D.

Lawence Berkeley National Laboratory

University of California

Berkeley, California

Preface

Lasers continue to be an amazingly robust field of activity, one of continually expanding

scientific and technological frontiers. Thus today we have lasing without inversion, quantum

cascade lasers, lasing in strongly scattering media, lasing in biomaterials, lasing in photonic

crystals, a single atom laser, speculation about black hole lasers, femtosecond-duration laser

pulses only a few cycles long, lasers with subhertz linewidths, semiconductor lasers with

predicted operating lifetimes of more than 100 years, peak powers in the petawatt regime and

planned megajoule pulse lasers, sizes ranging from semiconductor lasers with dimensions of

a few microns diameter and a few hundred atoms thick to huge glass lasers with hundreds of

beams for inertial confinement fusion research, lasers costing from less than one dollar to

more than one billion dollars, and a multibillion dollar per year market.

In addition, the nearly ubiquitous presence of lasers in our daily lives attests to the

prolific growth of their utilization. The laser is at the heart of the revolution that is marrying

photonic and electronic devices. In the past four decades, the laser has become an invaluable

tool for mankind encompassing such diverse applications as science, engineering,

communications, manufacturing and materials processing, medical therapeutics,

entertainment and displays, data storage and processing, environmental sensing, military,

energy, and metrology. It is difficult to imagine state-of-the-art research in physics,

chemistry, biology, and medicine without the use of radiation from various laser systems.

Laser action occurs in all states of matter—solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. Within

each category of lasing medium there may be differences in the nature of the active lasing ion

or center, the composition of the medium, and the excitation and operating techniques. For

some lasers, the periodic table has been extensively explored and exploited; for others—

solid-state lasers in particular—the compositional regime of hosts continues to expand. In

the case of semiconductor lasers the ability to grow special structures one atomic layer at a

time by liquid phase epitaxy, molecular beam epitaxy, and metal-organic chemical vapor

deposition has led to numerous new structures and operating configurations, such as

quantum wells and superlattices, and to a proliferation of new lasing wavelengths. Quantum

cascade lasers are examples of laser materials by design.

The number and type of lasers and their wavelength coverage continue to expand.

Anyone seeking a photon source is now confronted with an enormous number of possible

lasers and laser wavelengths. The spectral output ranges of solid, liquid, and gas lasers are

shown in Figure 1 and extend from the soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet regions to

millimeter wavelengths, thus overlapping masers. By using various frequency conversion

techniques—harmonic generation, parametric oscillation, sum- and difference-frequency

mixing, and Raman shifting—the wavelength of a given laser can be extended to longer and

shorter wavelengths, thus enlarging its spectral coverage.

This volume seeks to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date compilation of lasers, their

properties, and original references in a readily accessible form for laser scientists and

engineers and for those contemplating the use of lasers. The compilation also indicates the

state of knowledge and development in the field, provides a rapid means of obtaining

reference data, is a pathway to the literature, contains data useful for comparison with

predictions and/or to develop models of processes, and may reveal fundamental

inconsistencies or conflicts in the data. It serves an archival function and as an indicator of

newly emerging trends.

Ultraviolet

Visible

Millimeter-

microwave

Soft

x-ray

Vacuum

ultraviolet

X-ray

Far infrared

Infrared

Masers

Gas lasers:

3.9 nm

Liquid lasers:

m m

0.33

1.8 m m

Solid-state lasers:

0.17

m m

360 m m

0.001

0.01

0.1

1.0

100

1000

Wavelength ( m m)

Figure 1 Reported ranges of output wavelengths for various laser media.

In this volume lasers are categorized based on their media—solids, liquids, and gases—

with each category further subdivided as appropriate into distinctive laser types. Thus there

are sections on crystalline paramagnetic ion lasers, glass lasers, polymer lasers, color center

lasers, semiconductor lasers, liquid and solid-state dye lasers, inorganic liquid lasers, and

neutral atom, ionized, and molecular gas lasers. A separate section on "other" lasers which

have special operating configurations or properties includes x-ray lasers, free electron lasers,

nuclear-pumped lasers, lasers in nature, and lasers without inversion. Brief descriptions of

each type of laser are given followed by tables listing the lasing element or medium, host,

lasing transition and wavelength, operating properties, and primary literature citations.

Tuning ranges, when reported, are given for broadband lasers. The references are generally

those of the initial report of laser action; no attempt is made to follow the often voluminous

subsequent developments. For most types of lasers, lasing—light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation—includes, for completeness, not only operation in a

resonant cavity but also single-pass gain or amplified spontaneous emission (ASE). Thus,

for example, there is a section on amplification of core-valence luminescence.

Because laser performance is dependent on the operating configurations and experimental

conditions used, output data are generally not included. The interested reader is advised to

retrieve details of the structures and operating conditions from the original reference (in many

cases information about the output and operating configuration is included in the title of the

paper that is included in the references). Performance and background information about

lasers in general and about specific types of lasers in particular can be obtained from the

books and articles listed under Further Reading in each section.

An extended table of contents is provided from which the reader should be able to locate

the section containing a laser of interest. Within each subsection, lasers are arranged

according to the elements in the periodic table or alphabetically by materials, and may be

further separated by operating technique (for example, in the case of semiconductor lasers,

injection, optically pumped, or electron beam pumped).

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