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Pobierz
Revolution and
Enlightenment
1550 –1800
Section 1
The Scientific Revolution
Section 2
The Enlightenment
Section 3
The Impact of the Enlightenment
Section 4
The American Revolution
MAKING CONNECTIONS
How did the Enlightenment
influence art and society?
The brightly painted, lavish Catherine Palace in St. Petersburg is
an example of Russian baroque architecture. It was named for the
Russian empress Catherine I, who commissioned the grand palace
during her reign. In this chapter you will learn about the effects of
the Enlightenment.
• Do any buildings in your community feature baroque architecture?
Name some examples.
• Describe the emotions that these grand buildings are designed
to create.
1633
Galileo’s teachings
are condemned
by the Church
E
UROPE
,
N
ORTH
A
MERICA
,
AND
I
NDIA
1543
Copernicus publishes
his proposal of a
sun-centered universe
1550
1600
1650
T
HE
W
ORLD
1566
Süleyman I
dies
1636
Manchus
invade Korea
536
Galleria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, Florence/Bridgeman Art Library, Scott Gilchrist/Masterfile
B
re
ak
th
ro
ug
hs
i
n M
e
di
ci
ne
an
d
C
he
m
ist
ry
Organizing
Make a
Four-Door Book to orga-
nize significant facts on
astronomy, medicine and
chemistry, Descartes,
and the scientific method
during the Scientific
Revolution.
1702
First daily
news paper
is printed
in London
1756
The Seven
Years’ War
begins
1776
American colonies declare
independence from Britain
T
h
e
Sc
ie
nti
c
M
eth
o
d
1700
1750
1800
1795
Rule of Emperor
Qianlong ends
(ISTORY
/.,).%
Chapter Overview—
Visit
glencoe.com
to preview Chapter 17.
Scott Gilchrist/Masterfile, (t) Joseph Sohm/Jupiter Images, (b) Hu Weibiao/Panorama/The Image Works
The Scientific Revolution
Of all the changes that swept Europe in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, the most widely influential was the
Scientific Revolution. We often associate this revolution with
the various scientific and technological changes made during
this time. However, the Scientific Revolution was also about the
changes in the way Europeans looked at themselves and their
world.
GUIDE TO READING
The BIG Idea
New Technologies
The Scientific
Revolution gave Europeans a new way to view
humankind’s place in the universe.
Content Vocabulary
• geocentric
(p
. 540)
• heliocentric
(p
. 540)
• universal law of
gravitation
(p
. 541)
• rationalism
(p
. 545)
• scientific method
(p.
545)
• inductive reasoning
(p.
545)
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
The development of new technology and scientific theories became
the foundation of the Scientific Revolution.
HISTORY & YOU
How would you feel if you had to share the school’s only text-
book with everyone in your school? Learn how new tools such as the printing
press contributed to scientific knowledge.
Academic Vocabulary
• philosopher
(p.
538)
• sphere
(p.
540)
People and Places
• Nicolaus Copernicus
(p.
540)
• Johannes Kepler
(p.
540)
• Galileo Galilei
(p.
540)
• Isaac Newton
(p
. 541)
• Margaret Cavendish
(p.
543)
• Maria Winkelmann
(p.
543)
• René Descartes
(p.
544)
• Francis Bacon
(p.
545)
In the Middle Ages, many educated Europeans took great inter-
est in the world around them. However, these “natural
philoso-
phers,
” as medieval scientists were known, did not make
observations of the natural world. Instead they relied on a few
ancient authorities—especially Aristotle—for their scientific
knowledge. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a num-
ber of changes occurred that caused the natural philosophers to
abandon their old views and to develop new ones.
Reading Strategy
Summarizing Information
As you
read, use a table like the one below to chart the
contributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and
Newton to a new concept of the universe.
Copernicus
Kepler
Impact of the Renaissance
Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin.
These language skills gave them access to newly discovered works
by Ptolemy (TAH•luh•mee), Archimedes, and Plato. These writ-
ings made it obvious that some ancient thinkers had disagreed
with Aristotle and other accepted authorities of the Middle Ages.
New Technology and Mathematics
Other developments also encouraged new ways of thinking.
Technical problems that required careful observation and accurate
measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that
ships could hold, served to stimulate scientific activity. Then, too,
the invention of new instruments, such as the telescope and micro-
scope, made fresh scientific discoveries possible. Above all, the
printing press helped spread new ideas quickly and easily.
Mathematics played a key role in the scientific achievements of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. François Viète, a French
538
INTELLECTUALS OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
10°W
0°
10°E
20°E
Margaret Cavendish
(1623–1673)
Francis Bacon
(1561–1626)
Newcastle
20°W
Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473–1543)
Isaac Newton
(1642–1727)
ENGLAND
Robert Boyle
(1627–1691)
Frombork
Astronomy
Cambridge
Oxford
NETHERLANDS
Berlin
POLAND
Chemistry
GERMANY
William Harvey
(1578–1657)
Mathematics
Maria Winkelmann
(1670–1720)
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Paris
René Descartes
(1596–1650)
Medicine
Stuttgart
Antoine Lavoisier
(1743–1794
)
FRANCE
Philosophy
Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642)
Johannes Kepler
(1571–1630)
SPAIN
Padua
0
400 kilometers
Andreas Vesalius
(1514–1564)
0
400 miles
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
ITALY
1.
Place
What were the nationalities
of the chemists shown on the map?
2.
Movement
Scientists often build
on the work of other scientists.
What barriers would these scientists
have to overcome to learn about the
work of others in their field?
S
e a n
See
StudentWorks™ Plus
or
glencoe.com
.
lawyer, was among the first to use letters
to represent unknown quantities. He
applied this algebraic method to geometry
and laid the foundation for the invention of
trigonometry. Simon Stevin, a Flemish engi-
neer, introduced the decimal system. John
Napier of Scotland invented a table of loga-
rithms. The work of both Stevin and Napier
made it much easier to make the calcula-
tions critical to math problems.
The study of mathematics was promoted
in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of
the works of ancient mathematicians.
Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler,
Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton were all
great mathematicians who believed that the
secrets of nature were written in the lan-
guage of mathematics. After studying, and
sometimes discarding, the ideas of the
ancient mathematicians, these intellectuals
developed new theories that became the
foundation of the Scientific Revolution.
With the advance of mathematics—what
we now know as algebra, trigonometry, and
geometry—it became much easier for scien-
tists to demonstrate the proof of abstract
theories with clear, logical evidence.
✓
Reading Check
Evaluating
What role did
mathematics play in the Scientific Revolution?
CHAPTER 17
Revolution and Enlightenment
539
Scientific Breakthroughs
Ptolemaic system. In his system, the sun,
not Earth, was at the center of the universe.
The planets revolved around the sun. The
moon, however, revolved around Earth.
Moreover, according to Copernicus, the
apparent movement of the sun around
Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth
on its axis and its journey around the sun.
Johannes Kepler,
a German mathemati-
cian, took the next step in destroying the
Ptolemaic system. Kepler used detailed
astronomical data to arrive at his laws of
planetary motion. His observations con-
firmed that the sun was at the center of the
universe and also added new information.
In his first law, Kepler showed that the
planets’ orbits around the sun were not cir-
cular, as Copernicus had thought. Rather,
the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped),
with the sun toward the end of the ellipse
instead of at the center. This finding, known
as Kepler’s First Law, contradicted the cir-
cular orbits and crystal-like spheres that
were central to the Ptolemaic system.
Scientific discoveries expanded knowl-
edge about the universe and the human body.
HISTORY & YOU
What if you discovered another
planet just like Earth? Learn about the stunning dis-
coveries scientists made about the universe.
During the Scientific Revolution, discov-
eries in astronomy led to a new conception
of the universe. Breakthroughs advanced
medical knowledge and launched the field
of chemistry as well.
The Ptolemaic System
Ptolemy
,
who lived in the a.D. 100s, was
the greatest astronomer of antiquity. Using
Ptolemy’s ideas, as well as those of Aristo-
tle and of Christianity, philosophers of the
Middle Ages constructed a model of the
universe known later as the Ptolemaic
(TAH•luh•MAY•ihk) system. This system
is
geocentric
because it places Earth at the
center of the universe.
In the Ptolemaic system, the universe is
seen as a series of concentric
spheres
—one
inside the other. Earth is fixed, or motion-
less, at the center. The heavenly bodies—
pure orbs of light—are embedded in the
crystal-like, transparent spheres, which
rotate about Earth. The moon is embedded
in the first sphere, Mercury in the second,
Venus in the third, and the sun in the
fourth. The rotation of the spheres makes
these heavenly bodies rotate about Earth
and move in relation to one another.
The tenth sphere in the Ptolemaic sys-
tem is the “prime mover.” This sphere
moves itself and gives motion to the other
spheres. Beyond the tenth sphere is
Heaven, where God resides. God was at
one end of the universe, then, and humans
were at the center.
Galileo’s Discoveries
Scientists could now think in terms of
planets revolving around the sun in ellipti-
cal orbits. Important questions remained
unanswered, however. What are the plan-
ets made of? How does one explain motion
in the universe? An Italian scientist
answered the first question.
Galileo Galilei
taught mathematics. He
was the first European to make regular
observations of the heavens using a tele-
scope. With this tool, Galileo made a
remarkable series of discoveries: moun-
tains on Earth’s moon, four moons revolv-
ing around Jupiter, and sunspots.
Galileo’s observations seemed to destroy
yet another aspect of the Ptolemaic con-
ception. Heavenly bodies had been seen as
pure orbs of light. They now appeared to
be composed of material substance, just as
Earth was.
Galileo’s discoveries, published in
The
Starry Messenger
in 1610, did more to make
Europeans aware of the new view of the
universe than did the works of Copernicus
and Kepler. But in the midst of his newfound
fame, Galileo found himself under suspi-
cion by the Catholic Church.
Copernicus and Kepler
In May 1543,
Nicolaus Copernicus,
a
native of Poland, published his famous
book,
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.
Copernicus, a mathematician,
thought that his
heliocentric,
or sun-
centered, conception of the universe offered
a more accurate explanation than did the
540
SECTION 1
The Scientific Revolution
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