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© 2005, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
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First published 2005
ISBN 0 7020 2782 0
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A catalog record for the book is available from the Library of Congress
Knowledge and best practice in this field is are constantly changing. As new research
and experience broaden our knowledge, changes in practice, treatment and drug
therapy may become necessary or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the
most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the
manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose
or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the
responsibility of the practitioner, relying on their own experience and knowledge of
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each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To the fullest
extent of the law, neither the publisher nor the author assumes any liability for any
injury and/or damage.
The Publisher
Printed in Germany
Contributors
Chapter 1 Amphibian anatomy and physiology
vii
Peter Helmer DVM
Avian Animal Hospital of Bardmoor, Largo, Florida, USA
and
Douglas P Whiteside DVM DVSc
Staff Veterinary, Calgary Zoo, Alberta, Canada
Chapter 12 Ferrets
John H Lewington BvetMed MRCVS
Member Australian Veterinary Association (AVA) and Australian Small
Animal Veterinary Association (ASDAVA), member of American Ferret
Association (AFA), World Ferret Union (WFU), South Australian Ferret
Association (SAFA), New South Wales Ferret Welfare Society (NSWFWS),
Ferrets Southern District Perth (FSDP)
Preface
One of the main pleasures I have in working with exotic species is the fascinating diversity
among my patients. Daily in practice I see living evolution from frogs to snakes to birds and
small mammals. Each one presents a clinical challenge whether it is saving a tortoise found
drowning in a pond, treating a parrot with sinusitis or an anorexic rabbit. Yet we really need
to understand the basics – how reptiles breathe, the structure of the psittacine sinuses and
the complex gastro-intestinal physiology of the rabbit – before we can properly treat these
unique pets.
The internal structure and function of exotic species has always intrigued me, yet the
topic was traditionally not taught at Veterinary College. I wrote this book with the intention
of both redressing this balance and answering the many questions, which interest those who
work with exotics. Why, for example, don’t birds’ ears pop when they fly, why are rabbits
obligate nose breathers and how can a lizard drop its tail and grow a new one?
Over the last ten years veterinary knowledge of the medicine and surgery of exotic
animals has rapidly expanded yet the basic structure and function of these diverse species
have never been drawn together in a single text. With the increasing numbers of exotic pets,
veterinary surgeons are at a considerable disadvantage trying to treat sick reptile, avian and
rodent patients without having in-depth knowledge of the normal
ix
beneath.
This book, written by vets for vets, aims to merge the wealth of zoological research with
veterinary medicine – bringing the reader from the dissection table into the realms of
clinical practice and living patients. To this end, I have included clinical notes where
applicable and items of general interest about many species.
I hope this book will inspire vets in practice, veterinary students, nurses and technicians
to study this long neglected yet captivating subject and help them apply this knowledge
clinically to their patients.
bare bones
Acknowledgments
In writing this book I am grateful to veterinary surgeons Peter Helmer, Doug Whiteside and
John Lewington for contributing the excellent Amphibian and Ferret chapters.
I would like to thank the Natural History Museum of Ireland who provided the sources
for the following illustrations: Fig 6.1, 6.2, 6.5, 6.12, 6.14, 6.15, 6.17, 6.25, 6.67, 9.6, and
11.7. Also Janet Saad for her exceptional snake photographs.
The Elsevier editorial team were wonderful with their belief in this project, their
constant support and endless patience. I would also like to thank Samantha Elmhurst for
her skilful and beautiful illustrations. And Tasha my poor dog who missed out on walks so
this book could be researched and written.
Lastly, I would like to dedicate this book to my beloved mother, the late Mary Pat
O’Malley, whose enthusiasm and encouragement kept me going as I endeavoured to juggle
the demands of lecturing and running my own exotic animal practice with writing this book.
x
1
Amphibian anatomy and physiology
Peter J. Helmer and Douglas P. Whiteside
INTRODUCTION
The larval stages rely on fins to move through their aquatic
environment, in a manner similar to fish. Metamorphosis
includes the development of legs for terrestrial locomotion
(Figs. 1.1–1.6). The dual life cycle remains evident as the
limbs of many amphibians remain adapted, for instance
with webbing between the toes, for aquatic locomotion.
With over 4000 species described, the class Amphibia
represents a significant contribution to the diversity of
vertebrate life on earth. Amphibians occupy an important
ecological niche in which energy is transferred from their
major prey item, invertebrates, to their predators,
primarily reptiles and fish (Stebbins & Cohen 1995).
The first amphibian fossils date back approximately 350
million years. Current evidence indicates that they
descended from a group of fish similar to the coelacanth
(
TAXONOMY
Amphibians are classified into three orders (Table 1.1):
1. Anura (Salientia) – the frogs and toads
2. Caudata (Urodela) – the salamanders, newts, and
sirens
3. Gymnophiona (Apoda) – the caecilians
) (Boutilier et al. 1992; Wallace et al.
1991). These fish had functional lungs and bony, lobed fins
that supported the body. Further refinements of these fea-
tures allowed amphibians to be the first group of verte-
brates to take on a terrestrial existence. The class name
Amphibia (derived from the Greek roots
Latimeria chalumnae
Anura
By far, the Anura represent the greatest diversity of
amphibians, with over 3500 living species divided among
21 families. Anura comes from the Greek, meaning “with-
out a tail,” and with the exception of the tailed frogs
(Leiopelmatidae), the remainder of anurans have either a
very poorly developed tail or lack one (Fig. 1.7). The larvae
are unlike the adults, and lack teeth. Neoteny, the condition
in which animals become able to reproduce while arrested
developmentally in the larval stage (Wallace et al. 1991), is
not present. The anuran families are listed in Table 1.2
(Frank & Ramus 1995; Goin et al. 1978; Mitchell et al.
1988; Wright 1996, 2001b).
amphi
, meaning
“both,” and
, translated as “life”), refers to the dual
stages of life: aquatic and terrestrial.
Multiple features support the role of amphibians as
an evolutionary step between fish and reptiles. The 3-
chambered heart represents an intermediary between the
2-chambered piscine model and the more advanced 3-
chambered heart of the reptiles.
The trend toward terrestrial life is also evident in the
respiratory system. Most species have aquatic larval forms
where gas exchange occurs in external gills. Metamorphosis
to the adult, usually a terrestrial form, results in the develop-
ment of lungs. These primitive lungs are relatively ineffi-
cient compared to those of other terrestrial vertebrates,
and respiration is supplemented by gas exchange across the
skin. Secretions of the highly glandular skin help to main-
tain a moist exchange surface; however, amphibians are
restricted to damp habitats.
Most amphibians are oviparous, similar to fish and most
reptiles. Though their eggs must not be laid in completely
aquatic environments, the ova lack the water-resistant
membranes or shell of reptiles and birds, thus they must be
deposited in very damp places to avoid desiccation.
bios
Caudata
The order Caudata comprises nine families, with around
375 species described (Table 1.3). Urodeles have a long
tail, with the toothed larval forms often being similar in
appearance to the adults. Neoteny is common among the
salamander families, with the axolotl (
Ambystoma
mexicanum
) (Fig. 1.8) being the most common example
(Frank & Ramus 1995; Goin et al. 1978; Mitchell et al.
1988; Wright 1996, 2001b).
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