Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics.pdf

Editors

Franco Bassani, Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy

Gerald L Liedl, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Peter Wyder, Grenoble High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Grenoble, France

Editorial Advisory Board

Vladimir Agranovich, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Angelo Bifone, GlaxoSmithKline Research Centre, Verona, Italy

Riccardo Broglia, Universita degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy

Kikuo Cho, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

erard Chouteau, CNRS and MPI-FKF, Grenoble, France

Roberto Colella, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Pulak Dutta, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

Leo Esaki, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan

Jaap Franse, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Alexander Gerber, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Ron Gibala, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Guiseppe Grosso, Universit

a di Pisa, Pisa, Italy

Jurgen M Honig, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Massimo Inguscio, Dipartmento di Fisica e L.E.N.S., Firenze, Italy

A G M Jansen, Institut Max Planck, Grenoble, France

Th W J Janssen, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Giorgio Margaritondo, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Emmanuel Rimini, Universita di Catania, Catania, Italy

Robin D Rogers, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

John Singleton, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

Carl H Zweben, Devon, PA, USA

INTRODUCTION

Physics is the paradigm of all scientiﬁc knowledge. Over the centuries it has evolved to a complexity that has

resulted in a separation into various subﬁelds, always connected with one another and very difﬁcult to single

out. Freeman Dyson, in his beautiful book ‘Inﬁnite in All Directions’, distinguishes two aspects of physics and

two types of physicists: the uniﬁers and the diversiﬁers. The uniﬁers look for the most general laws of nature,

like the universal attraction between masses and electric charges, the laws of motion, relativity principles, the

simplest elementary particles, the uniﬁcation of all forces, symmetry violation and so on. The diversiﬁers

consider the immense variety of natural phenomena, inﬁnite in their extension, try to explain them on the basis

of known general principles, and generate new phenomena and devices that do not exist in nature. Even at the

beginning of modern science Galileo Galilei, besides studying the laws of motion and laying down the principle

of relativity, was interested in the phenomenon of ﬂuorescence and disproved the theories put forward at his

time. He was both a uniﬁer and a diversiﬁer. The full explanation of ﬂuorescence had to await the advent of

quantum mechanics, as did the explanation of other basic phenomena like electrical conductivity and

spectroscopy.

The past century witnessed an explosive expansion in both aspects of physics. Relativity and quantum

mechanics were discovered and the greatest of the uniﬁers, Albert Einstein, became convinced that all reality

could be comprehended with a simple set of equations. On the other hand a wide range of complex phenomena

was explained and numerous new phenomena were discovered. One of the great diversiﬁers, John Bardeen,

explained superconductivity and invented the transistor.

In physics today we encounter complex phenomena in the behavior of both natural and artiﬁcial complex

systems, in matter constituted by many particles such as interacting atoms, in crystals, in classical and quantum

ﬂuids as well as in semiconductors and nanostructured materials. Furthermore, the complexity of biological

matter and biological phenomena are now major areas of study as well as climate prediction on a global scale.

All of this has evolved into what we now call ‘‘condensed matter physics’’. This is a more comprehensive term

than ‘‘solid state physics’’ from which, when the electronic properties of crystals began to be understood in the

thirties, it originated in some way. Condensed matter physics also includes aspects of atomic physics,

particularly when the atoms are manipulated, as in Bose–Einstein condensation. It is now the largest part of

physics and it is where the greatest number of physicists work. Furthermore, it is enhanced through its

connections with technology and industry. In condensed matter physics new phenomena, new devices, and new

principles, such as the quantum Hall effect, are constantly emerging. For this reason we think that condensed

matter is now the liveliest subﬁeld of physics, and have decided to address it in the present Encyclopedia. Our

focus is to provide some deﬁnitive articles for graduate students who need a guide through this impenetrable

forest, researchers who want a broader view into subjects related to their own, engineers who are interested in

emerging and new technologies together with biologists who require a deeper insight into this fascinating and

complex ﬁeld that augments theirs.

In this Encyclopedia we have selected key topics in the ﬁeld of condensed matter physics, provided historical

background to some of the major areas and directed the reader, through detailed references, to further reading

resources. Authors were sought from those who have made major contributions and worked actively in the

viii INTRODUCTION

area of the topic. We are aware that completeness in such an inﬁnite domain is an unattainable dream and have

decided to limit our effort to a six-volume work covering only the main aspects of the ﬁeld, not all of them in

comparable depth.

A signiﬁcant part of the Encyclopedia is devoted to the basic methods of quantum mechanics, as applied to

crystals and other condensed matter. Semiconductors in particular are extensively described because of their

importance in the modern information highways. Nanostructured materials are included because the ability to

produce substances which do not exist in nature offers intriguing opportunities, not least because their

properties can be tailored to obtain speciﬁc devices like microcavities for light concentration, special lasers, or

photonic band gap materials. For the same reasons optical properties are given special attention. We have not,

however, neglected foundation aspects of the ﬁeld (such as mechanical properties) that are basic for all material

applications, microscopy which now allows one to see and to manipulate individual atoms, and materials

processing which is necessary to produce new devices and components. Attention is also devoted to the ever-

expanding role of organic materials, in particular polymers. Speciﬁc effort has been made to include biological

materials, which after the discovery of DNA and its properties are now being understood in physical terms.

Neuroscience is also included, in conjunction with biological phenomena and other areas of the ﬁeld.

Computational physics and mathematical methods are included owing to their expanding role in all of

condensed matter physics and their potential in numerous areas of study including applications in the study of

proteins and drug design. Many articles deal with the description of speciﬁc devices like electron and positron

sources, radiation sources, optoelectronic devices, micro and nanoelectronics. Also, articles covering essential

techniques such as optical and electron microscopy, a variety of spectroscopes, x-ray and electron scattering

and nuclear and electron spin resonance have been included to provide a foundation for the characterization

aspect of condensed matter physics.

We are aware of the wealth of topics that have been incompletely treated or left out, but we hope that by

concentrating on the foundation and emerging aspects of the inﬁnite extension of condensed matter physics

these volumes will be generally useful.

We wish to acknowledge the fruitful collaboration of the members of the scientiﬁc editorial board and of the

Elsevier editorial staff.

Special thanks are due to Giuseppe Grosso, Giuseppe La Rocca, Keith Bowman, Jurgen Honig, Roberto

Colella, Michael McElfresh, Jaap Franse, and Louis Jansen for their generous help.

Franco Bassani, Peter Wyder, and Gerald L Liedl

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