slyt298.pdf
(
174 KB
)
Pobierz
Texas Instruments Incorporated
Interface (Data Transmission)
When good grounds turn bad—isolate!
By Thomas Kugelstadt
Senior Applications Engineer
Industrial communication via fieldbus-transceiver systems
often requires long transmission lines. Designers, unaware
of the large ground-potential differences (GPDs) between
remote bus locations, either rely on the local earth ground
as a reliable signal return path or directly connect remote
grounds to each other—thus creating noisy ground loops.
In both cases the integrity of the transmission signal is
compromised, which can lead to system lockup and, at
worst, destroy the bus transceivers.
To make designers aware of these design pitfalls, this
article explains where GPDs originate in the electrical
installation, how ground loops are created unintentionally,
and how isolation circumvents both conditions to yield a
robust data-transmission system.
Linking grounds
The link between the direct-current (DC) ground of a local
electronic circuit and the earth reference potential of the
mains is usually provided by the local power supply
converting the line voltage into the required DC output.
Figure 1 shows a simplified block diagram of a low-cost
switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically used in
personal computers, laser printers, and other equipment.
Here the DC ground of the SMPS output is referenced to
the protective earth (PE) conductor of the mains via the
SMPS chassis. This direct link, therefore, acts as a sense
conductor, establishing the PE voltage as the local DC
ground potential.
Linear and nonlinear loads
Large office and industrial buildings operate a vast number
of nonlinear loads such as PCs, laser printers, solid-state
heater controls, fluorescent tubes, uninterruptible power
supplies, and variable-speed drives. In comparison to linear
loads such as incandescent lamps, whose phase currents
maintain a sinusoidal waveform, nonlinear loads distort
phase currents, introducing large harmonic content (see
Figure 2).
Figure 1. Simplified block diagram of an SMPS
FB
L1
S1
FS1
R1
T1
D2
FS2
L
+V
EMI and
RF
Filter
R2
C1
C2
C3
R
L
D3
Q1
N
D1
V
GD
I
leak
PE
0V
Figure 2. Distorted phase current and its frequency components
=
+
+
Distorted-
Current
Waveform
Fundamental
Third Harmonic
Fifth Harmonic
11
Analog Applications Journal
3Q 2008
www.ti.com/aaj
High-Performance Analog Products
Interface (Data Transmission)
Texas Instruments Incorporated
Figure 3. Multiphase currents with a linear load
(a) Sinusoidal phase currents
(b) Total neutral current due to
load imbalance
Figure 4. Total neutral current consists mainly of third harmonics
Total Neutral
Current
+
+
=
Fundamental
Current
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
While the third and fifth harmonics of the fundamen-
tal 60-Hz line frequency make up the lion’s share of
the harmonic content, the vector sum of all frequency
components (including the 60-Hz fundamental) can
reach peak values that exceed the amplitude of the
fundamental phase current by more than 100%.
All neutral conductors merge into one neutral con-
ductor of large diameter within the distribution panel,
running towards the transformer (Figure 5). In the
case of linear loads, the neutral currents of multi-
phase systems cancel each other to a certain extent.
Only a fraction of the total neutral current remains
due to loading imbalance (Figure 3).
For nonlinear loads, however, the individual currents
add up to a total neutral current consisting primarily
of third harmonics (Figure 4). The large neutral cur-
rents of nonlinear loads, therefore, cause significantly
higher voltage drops across the line resistance of the
electrical installation than those of linear loads.
Earthing systems
Most electrical installations use either the TN-C or
the TN-C-S earthing system, both shown in Figure 5.
“TN” means the neutral is grounded to earth
(French
terre
) at the transformer. The letter “C”
indicates the combined use of PE and neutral lines
via one conductor, designated as “PEN.” The PEN
runs through the entire system up to a distribution
point (i.e., a subpanel) close to the loads, where it is
split into separate PE and neutral conductors that
directly connect to the loads.
Figure 5. TN-C system (a) with typically higher GPDs
than TN-C-S system (b)
L1
PEN
L1
R
L-N
R
L-N
L2
Load A
1
Load A
m
L2
PEN
L3
PEN
L3
R
L-N
R
L-N
R
LS
Load B
1
Load B
n
PEN
(a) TN-C system
R
L
-
N
R
L
-
N
L1
L1
N
PE
R
L
-
PE
R
L-PE
L2
Load A
1
Load A
m
L2
N
PE
R
L
-
N
R
L
-
N
L3
L3
N
PE
R
LS
R
L-PE
R
L-PE
Load B
1
Load B
n
PEN
N
PE
(b) TN-C-S system
12
Analog Applications Journal
High-Performance Analog Products
www.ti.com/aaj
3Q 2008
Texas Instruments Incorporated
Interface (Data Transmission)
Although TN-C represents an old earthing system, it has
regained interest because it is less costly than a system
requiring an additional PE conductor. The TN-C method,
however, has a major drawback. Because the split into PE
and neutral lines occurs close to a load, the voltage poten-
tial at the local PE connection includes the large voltage
drops across the line resistance, R
L-N
, of long neutral con-
ductors. These voltage drops are caused by high neutral
currents from nonlinear loads. The TN-C system, therefore,
has the potential to cause large GPDs between remote
grounds in the tens of volts.
The TN-C-S system reduces GPDs by starting an extra
PE conductor within the distribution panel. Additionally,
the star connection of the system’s neutral and PE con-
ductors receives a second grounding to earth, reducing
the equipotential at this point and counteracting the
otherwise large voltage drop at the PEN across the source
line resistance, R
LS
.
According to the United States National Electrical Code
(NEC), the PE conductor is supposed to be currentless
under normal operation. However, most nonlinear loads
leak currents in the lower milliamperes into the PE con-
ductor. This amount, although small for one circuit, easily
reaches amperes when hundreds of circuits contribute
into the same line.
Although negligible in comparison with neutral currents,
leakage currents do create potential differences between
remote ground locations due to the voltage drops across
the line resistance of the PE conductors. These GPDs,
however, are in the millivolts range or lower and are thus
significantly lower than in TN-C systems.
GPDs are not a problem for an electronic circuit limited
to operation from only one local supply. GPDs do become
of concern in the design of a communication link between
two remote circuits (i.e., fieldbus-transceiver stations),
each operating from a different supply.
Designing a remote data link
When designing a remote data link, the designer must
assume GPDs exist. These voltages add as common-mode
noise, V
n
, to the transmitter output. Even if the total super-
imposed signal is within the receiver’s input common-
mode range, relying on the local earth ground as a reliable
path for the return current remains dangerous (see Figure
6a). This applies even to “super” RS-485 transceivers such
as the Texas Instruments SN65HVD2x family, whose input
common-mode range stretches from –20 V to +25 V.
Any modifications of the electrical installation (i.e., dur-
ing regular maintenance work) are out of the designer’s
control. The modifications can increase the GPD to the
extent that the receiver’s input common-mode range is
either sporadically or permanently exceeded. Thus, a data
link that works perfectly today might cease operation
sometime in the future.
Removing the GPD by directly connecting remote
grounds through a ground wire is also not recommended
(Figure 6b). Bear in mind that the electrical installation
constitutes a highly complex resistance network consisting
Figure 6. Design pitfalls
V
CC1
V
CC2
V
CC
1
V
CC
2
V
CC1
V
CC2
V
n
V
n
V
n
High Loop Current
Low Loop Current
GPD
2
3
2
3
100
Ω
100
Ω
Ground Loop
Circuit
Ground
Circuit
Ground
Ground Loop
Electrical Installation
Electrical Installation
2
3
1
1
Electrical Installation
1
(a) High GPD
(b) High loop current
(c) Reduced loop current yet highly sensitive to
induced noise from large ground loop
13
Analog Applications Journal
3Q 2008
www.ti.com/aaj
High-Performance Analog Products
Interface (Data Transmission)
Texas Instruments Incorporated
of multiple cross-connected line and grounding resistances
caused by multiphase systems, different cable lengths, and
various grounding electrode paths (Figure 7).
A direct connection between remote grounds shunts
this network while creating a current loop. The initial GPD
tries to compensate its collapse by driving a large loop
current through the low-impedance ground wire. The loop
current couples to the data-line circuit and generates
noise voltage that is superimposed on the transmission
(common-mode) signal. This again carries the risk of a
highly unreliable data-transmission system.
To allow for a direct connection of remote grounds, the
RS-485 standard recommends the separation of the device
ground and the local system ground via the insertion of
resistors (Figure 6c). While this approach reduces loop
current, the existence of a large ground loop keeps the
data link sensitive to noise generated somewhere else
along the loop. Thus, a robust data link still has not yet
been established. The most robust RS-485 data link over a
long distance, withstanding GPDs of up to hundreds and
thousands of volts, is via galvanic isolation of the signal
and supply lines of a bus transceiver from its local signal
and supply sources (Figure 8).
Supply isolators such as isolated DC/DC converters, and
signal isolators such as digital capacitive isolators, avoid
the creation of current loops and prevent current flow
between remote system grounds with GPDs of up to
several thousand volts.
Without a reference to ground, the bus transceivers
would be operating from a floating supply. Thus, current
or voltage surges caused by lightning, ground faults, or
other noisy environments would be able to lift the floating
Figure 7. Example of resistance complexity
of grounding paths
2
3
1
bus common to dangerously high levels. These events
won’t destroy components connected to the bus, as their
signal and supply levels are referenced to the bus common
and ride on the varying common reference potential.
However, where the transmission wires connect to PCB
connectors at the various transceiver nodes, the high volt-
ages, if not removed, can lead to arcing and destroy PCB
components close to the connector. To suppress current
and voltage transients on the bus common, it is necessary
to reference the bus common at one point to the system
ground. This location usually is at a non-isolated trans-
ceiver node, which provides the single-ground reference
for the entire bus system.
Figure 8. Isolation of two remote transceiver stations with single-ground reference
Supply
Isolator
V
REG
L
2
SMPS
N
2
L
1
V
REG
XCVR
XCVR
SMPS
N
1
Local
Processing
Circuit
Local
Processing
Circuit
Signal
Isolator
PE
1
PE
2
2
3
14
Analog Applications Journal
High-Performance Analog Products
www.ti.com/aaj
3Q 2008
Texas Instruments Incorporated
Interface (Data Transmission)
Figure 9. Isolation of multiple fieldbus-transceiver stations
V
CC1
V
CC4
R
Non-
isolated
XCVR
R
Isolated
XCVR
D
D
GND1
GND4
Isolated
XCVR
Isolated
XCVR
R
D
V
CC2
R
D
V
CC3
GND2
GND3
While Figure 8 shows the detailed connection of two
remote transceiver nodes, Figure 9 shows an example of
an isolated data-transmission system using multiple trans-
ceivers. Here all but one transceiver connect to the bus via
isolation. The non-isolated transceiver on the left provides
the single-ground reference for the entire bus.
Conclusion
Designing remote data links requires the isolation of supply
and signal lines of fieldbus-transceiver stations to circum-
vent the detrimental effects of GPDs and ground loops on
the signal integrity and the components.
While some of the figures in this article illustrate differen-
tial data transmission, the principles discussed also hold
true for single-ended transmission systems such as the
RS-232.
Related Web site
interface.ti.com
15
Analog Applications Journal
3Q 2008
www.ti.com/aaj
High-Performance Analog Products
Plik z chomika:
TirNaNog
Inne pliki z tego folderu:
slyt331.pdf
(570 KB)
slyt333.pdf
(771 KB)
slyt335.pdf
(746 KB)
slyt332.pdf
(706 KB)
slyt334.pdf
(626 KB)
Inne foldery tego chomika:
ACE
AcornUser
AmigaComputing
AmigaFormat
AmigaShopper
Zgłoś jeśli
naruszono regulamin